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Overview of EU cosmetics rules, amendments to the Cosmetics Regulation, guidelines, and claims. Testing guidance and analytical methods for cosmetic products, and information on scientific committees.

Free online notification system for submitting information about cosmetic products placed on the EU market. Bilateral cooperation on cosmetic products with China and the United States, and multilateral cooperation with other countries. Regulatory framework for the phasing out of animal testing for cosmetics purposes, history of the testing ban, and European and international cooperation.

Platform of European market surveillance authorities for cosmetics and guidelines on communicating serious undesirable effects. Cosmetics range from everyday hygiene products such as soap, shampoo, deodorant, and toothpaste to luxury beauty items including perfumes and makeup. These products are regulated at European level to ensure consumer safety and to secure an internal market for cosmetics.

Europe is a world leader in the cosmetics industry and dominant cosmetics exporter. The sector is highly innovative and provides significant employment in Europe. These all aim to ensure the highest level of consumer safety while promoting the innovation and the competitiveness of this sector.

The European Commission is also in contact with cosmetics stakeholders at EU and international level. This cooperation enables the exchange of information and ensures the smoother implementation of EU requirements in the sector. Regardless of the manufacturing processes or the channels of distribution, cosmetic products placed on the EU market must be safe.

Glossary and acronyms related to cosmetics legislation 24 kB. List of national competent authorities for cosmetics, poison centres and other relevant authorities 22 KB.

Home Sectors Cosmetics Cosmetics. Cosmetic products — specific topics Endocrine disruptors Hair dye products Sunscreen products Nanomaterials CMR substances Fragrance allergens labelling Borderline products Preservatives. Legislation Overview of EU cosmetics rules, amendments to the Cosmetics Regulation, guidelines, and claims.

Scientific and technical assessment Testing guidance and analytical methods for cosmetic products, and information on scientific committees. Cosmetic ingredient database CosIng — Glossary of ingredients. Cosmetic product notification portal Free online notification system for submitting information about cosmetic products placed on the EU market. International cooperation Bilateral cooperation on cosmetic products with China and the United States, and multilateral cooperation with other countries.

Ban on animal testing Regulatory framework for the phasing out of animal testing for cosmetics purposes, history of the testing ban, and European and international cooperation.

Market surveillance Platform of European market surveillance authorities for cosmetics and guidelines on communicating serious undesirable effects. Product safety and legislation Regardless of the manufacturing processes or the channels of distribution, cosmetic products placed on the EU market must be safe.

Cosmetics legislation at EU level also requires that all products to be marketed in the EU must be registered in the cosmetic products notification portal CPNP before being placed on the market requires that some cosmetic products are given special attention from regulators due to their scientific complexity or higher potential risk to consumer health ensures that there is a ban on animal testing for cosmetic purposes makes EU countries responsible for market surveillance at national level Glossary and acronyms related to cosmetics legislation 24 kB Revision of the Regulation The Commission plans to revise the Cosmetic Product Regulation.

We aim to improve the protection of human health from chemical risks operationalise and streamline the technical and scientific work for risk assessment of ingredients in cosmetics improve communication of information via digital labelling enhance the functioning of the internal market for cosmetics Contacts List of national competent authorities for cosmetics, poison centres and other relevant authorities 22 KB Brexit See specific sectoral guidance notices for stakeholders Brexit transition: Stakeholder guidance on EU rules in relation to medicinal products human use, veterinary.

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Cosmetic ingredient database CosIng — Glossary of ingredients. Cosmetic product notification portal Free online notification system for submitting information about cosmetic products placed on the EU market.

International cooperation Bilateral cooperation on cosmetic products with China and the United States, and multilateral cooperation with other countries.

Ban on animal testing Regulatory framework for the phasing out of animal testing for cosmetics purposes, history of the testing ban, and European and international cooperation. Market surveillance Platform of European market surveillance authorities for cosmetics and guidelines on communicating serious undesirable effects.

Product safety and legislation Regardless of the manufacturing processes or the channels of distribution, cosmetic products placed on the EU market must be safe. They are all specialized in specific fields. To ensure our writers are competent, they pass through a strict screening and multiple testing. All our writers are graduates and professors from the most prestigious universities and colleges in the world.

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We will take care of all your assignment needs We are a leading online assignment help service provider. Place an Order. Calculate your essay price. Type of paper. Typical incident response plans contain a set of written instructions that outline the organization’s response to a cyberattack. Without a documented plan in place, an organization may not successfully detect an intrusion or compromise and stakeholders may not understand their roles, processes and procedures during an escalation, slowing the organization’s response and resolution.

In , 60, computers were connected to the Internet, and most were mainframes, minicomputers and professional workstations. On 2 November , many started to slow down, because they were running a malicious code that demanded processor time and that spread itself to other computers — the first internet » computer worm «. In , over a hundred intrusions were made by unidentified crackers into the Rome Laboratory , the US Air Force’s main command and research facility.

Using trojan horses , hackers were able to obtain unrestricted access to Rome’s networking systems and remove traces of their activities. The intruders were able to obtain classified files, such as air tasking order systems data and furthermore able to penetrate connected networks of National Aeronautics and Space Administration ‘s Goddard Space Flight Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, some Defense contractors, and other private sector organizations, by posing as a trusted Rome center user.

In early , American apparel and home goods company TJX announced that it was the victim of an unauthorized computer systems intrusion [] and that the hackers had accessed a system that stored data on credit card , debit card , check , and merchandise return transactions.

In , the computer worm known as Stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one-fifth of Iran’s nuclear centrifuges. This is generally believed to have been launched by Israel and the United States to disrupt Iran’s nuclear program [] [] [] [] — although neither has publicly admitted this.

The size of the thefts has resulted in major attention from state and Federal United States authorities and the investigation is ongoing. In April , the Office of Personnel Management discovered it had been hacked more than a year earlier in a data breach, resulting in the theft of approximately The group claimed that they had taken not only company data but user data as well.

After the breach, The Impact Team dumped emails from the company’s CEO, to prove their point, and threatened to dump customer data unless the website was taken down permanently. In June , the cyber attack took down the largest fuel pipeline in the U. International legal issues of cyber attacks are complicated in nature.

There is no global base of common rules to judge, and eventually punish, cybercrimes and cybercriminals – and where security firms or agencies do locate the cybercriminal behind the creation of a particular piece of malware or form of cyber attack , often the local authorities cannot take action due to lack of laws under which to prosecute.

So the Internet is as if someone [had] given free plane tickets to all the online criminals of the world. The role of the government is to make regulations to force companies and organizations to protect their systems, infrastructure and information from any cyberattacks, but also to protect its own national infrastructure such as the national power-grid. The government’s regulatory role in cyberspace is complicated.

For some, cyberspace was seen as a virtual space that was to remain free of government intervention, as can be seen in many of today’s libertarian blockchain and bitcoin discussions.

Many government officials and experts think that the government should do more and that there is a crucial need for improved regulation, mainly due to the failure of the private sector to solve efficiently the cybersecurity problem.

Clarke said during a panel discussion at the RSA Security Conference in San Francisco , he believes that the «industry only responds when you threaten regulation. If the industry doesn’t respond to the threat , you have to follow through. Daniel R. McCarthy analyzed this public-private partnership in cybersecurity and reflected on the role of cybersecurity in the broader constitution of political order.

On 22 May , the UN Security Council held its second ever informal meeting on cybersecurity to focus on cyber challenges to international peace. GDPR requires that business processes that handle personal data be built with data protection by design and by default. Since , Canada has had a cybersecurity strategy.

Public Safety Canada aims to begin an evaluation of Canada’s cybersecurity strategy in early The LSG was created to overcome the incoherent policies and overlapping responsibilities that characterized China’s former cyberspace decision-making mechanisms. The LSG oversees policy-making in the economic, political, cultural, social and military fields as they relate to network security and IT strategy.

This LSG also coordinates major policy initiatives in the international arena that promote norms and standards favored by the Chinese government and that emphasizes the principle of national sovereignty in cyberspace. According to the Minister, the primary task of the new organization founded on 23 February , is to detect and prevent attacks against the national infrastructure and mentioned incidents like Stuxnet.

Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act The National Cyber Security Policy is a policy framework by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology MeitY which aims to protect the public and private infrastructure from cyberattacks, and safeguard «information, such as personal information of web users , financial and banking information and sovereign data». CERT- In is the nodal agency which monitors the cyber threats in the country.

The Indian Companies Act has also introduced cyber law and cybersecurity obligations on the part of Indian directors. Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act Update in Following cyberattacks in the first half of , when the government, news media, television stations, and bank websites were compromised, the national government committed to the training of 5, new cybersecurity experts by The South Korean government blamed its northern counterpart for these attacks, as well as incidents that occurred in , , [] and , but Pyongyang denies the accusations.

The 18 U. It prohibits unauthorized access or damage of «protected computers» as defined in 18 U. Although various other measures have been proposed [] [] — none has succeeded. In response to the Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack [] President Joe Biden signed Executive Order [] on May 12, , to increase software security standards for sales to the government, tighten detection and security on existing systems, improve information sharing and training, establish a Cyber Safety Review Board, and improve incident response.

The Department of Homeland Security has a dedicated division responsible for the response system, risk management program and requirements for cybersecurity in the United States called the National Cyber Security Division.

In addition to its own specific duties, the FBI participates alongside non-profit organizations such as InfraGard. The CCIPS is in charge of investigating computer crime and intellectual property crime and is specialized in the search and seizure of digital evidence in computers and networks. The U. Federal Communications Commission ‘s role in cybersecurity is to strengthen the protection of critical communications infrastructure, to assist in maintaining the reliability of networks during disasters, to aid in swift recovery after, and to ensure that first responders have access to effective communications services.

The Food and Drug Administration has issued guidance for medical devices, [] and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration [] is concerned with automotive cybersecurity.

After being criticized by the Government Accountability Office , [] and following successful attacks on airports and claimed attacks on airplanes, the Federal Aviation Administration has devoted funding to securing systems on board the planes of private manufacturers, and the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System.

In the US, two distinct organizations exist, although they do work closely together. There is growing concern that cyberspace will become the next theater of warfare. In the future, wars will not just be fought by soldiers with guns or with planes that drop bombs. They will also be fought with the click of a mouse a half a world away that unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs that disrupt or destroy critical industries like utilities, transportation, communications, and energy.

Such attacks could also disable military networks that control the movement of troops, the path of jet fighters, the command and control of warships. This has led to new terms such as cyberwarfare and cyberterrorism. The United States Cyber Command was created in [] and many other countries have similar forces. There are a few critical voices that question whether cybersecurity is as significant a threat as it is made out to be.

Cybersecurity is a fast-growing field of IT concerned with reducing organizations’ risk of hack or data breaches. The fastest increases in demand for cybersecurity workers are in industries managing increasing volumes of consumer data such as finance, health care, and retail.

Typical cybersecurity job titles and descriptions include: []. Student programs are also available for people interested in beginning a career in cybersecurity. In the United Kingdom, a nationwide set of cybersecurity forums, known as the U. K Cyber Security Forum , were established supported by the Government’s cybersecurity strategy [] in order to encourage start-ups and innovation and to address the skills gap [] identified by the U.

K Government. The framework defines emerging cybersecurity roles in Operational Technology. It outlines the different OT cybersecurity job positions as well as the technical skills and core competencies necessary. It also depicts the many career paths available, including vertical and lateral advancement opportunities. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Protection of computer systems from information disclosure, theft or damage. Phreaking Cryptovirology Hacking of consumer electronics List of hackers.

Hacker culture and ethic. Computer crime. Crimeware List of computer criminals Script kiddie. Hacking tools. Exploit forensics-focused operating systems Payload Social engineering Vulnerability.

Practice sites. HackThisSite Zone-H. Computer security. Application security Cloud computing security Network security. Main article: Vulnerability computing. Main article: Side-channel attack.

Main article: Spoofing attack. See also: Medical device hijack and Medical data breach. Main article: Secure by design. Main article: Vulnerability management. See also: Computer security compromised by hardware failure. Main article: Security-evaluated operating system.

Main article: Secure coding. Main articles: Access control list , Role-based access control , and Capability-based security. Further information: List of cyber-attacks and List of data breaches. Main article: Morris worm. Main article: Global surveillance disclosures —present. Main article: Ashley Madison Data Breach.

Main article: Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack. Main article: Computer emergency response team. This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. January Main article: Cyberwarfare. Ross J. Denning Peter J. Neumann Susan Nycum Paul C. Stolfo Willis Ware Moti Yung. Journal of Digital Forensics, Security and Law. ISSN Retrieved 12 July The Australian. Politics and Governance.

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Archived from the original on 9 November Retrieved 8 November Archived from the original on 27 March Retrieved 29 March Archived from the original on 29 March Archived from the original on 4 January Retrieved 4 January Only Released Gigabytes So Far».

Business Insider. Archived from the original on 17 December Retrieved 18 December Lee 18 January Archived from the original on 17 March Archived PDF from the original on 9 November Retrieved 4 November Archived from the original on 20 January Retrieved 22 January

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All samples. Lab Report. Annotated bibliography. Case study. Term paper. Research paper. Desktop computers and laptops are commonly targeted to gather passwords or financial account information, or to construct a botnet to attack another target. Smartphones , tablet computers , smart watches , and other mobile devices such as quantified self devices like activity trackers have sensors such as cameras, microphones, GPS receivers, compasses, and accelerometers which could be exploited, and may collect personal information, including sensitive health information.

WiFi, Bluetooth, and cell phone networks on any of these devices could be used as attack vectors, and sensors might be remotely activated after a successful breach. The increasing number of home automation devices such as the Nest thermostat are also potential targets. Large corporations are common targets. In many cases attacks are aimed at financial gain through identity theft and involve data breaches.

Examples include the loss of millions of clients’ credit card details by Home Depot , [47] Staples , [48] Target Corporation , [49] and the most recent breach of Equifax. Medical records have been targeted in general identify theft, health insurance fraud, and impersonating patients to obtain prescription drugs for recreational purposes or resale.

Not all attacks are financially motivated, however: security firm HBGary Federal suffered a serious series of attacks in from hacktivist group Anonymous in retaliation for the firm’s CEO claiming to have infiltrated their group, [53] [54] and Sony Pictures was hacked in with the apparent dual motive of embarrassing the company through data leaks and crippling the company by wiping workstations and servers.

Vehicles are increasingly computerized, with engine timing, cruise control , anti-lock brakes , seat belt tensioners, door locks, airbags and advanced driver-assistance systems on many models.

Simple examples of risk include a malicious compact disc being used as an attack vector, [61] and the car’s onboard microphones being used for eavesdropping. However, if access is gained to a car’s internal controller area network , the danger is much greater [57] — and in a widely publicized test, hackers remotely carjacked a vehicle from 10 miles away and drove it into a ditch. Manufacturers are reacting in numerous ways, with Tesla in pushing out some security fixes «over the air» into its cars’ computer systems.

Government and military computer systems are commonly attacked by activists [67] [68] [69] and foreign powers. The Internet of things IoT is the network of physical objects such as devices, vehicles, and buildings that are embedded with electronics , software , sensors , and network connectivity that enables them to collect and exchange data.

While the IoT creates opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based systems, [78] [79] it also provides opportunities for misuse. In particular, as the Internet of Things spreads widely, cyberattacks are likely to become an increasingly physical rather than simply virtual threat. People could stand to lose much more than their credit card numbers in a world controlled by IoT-enabled devices. Thieves have also used electronic means to circumvent non-Internet-connected hotel door locks.

As IoT devices and appliances gain currency, cyber-kinetic attacks can become pervasive and significantly damaging. Medical devices have either been successfully attacked or had potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated, including both in-hospital diagnostic equipment [82] and implanted devices including pacemakers [83] and insulin pumps. In distributed generation systems, the risk of a cyber attack is real, according to Daily Energy Insider.

An attack could cause a loss of power in a large area for a long period of time, and such an attack could have just as severe consequences as a natural disaster. The District of Columbia is considering creating a Distributed Energy Resources DER Authority within the city, with the goal being for customers to have more insight into their own energy use and giving the local electric utility, Pepco , the chance to better estimate energy demand.

The D. Serious financial damage has been caused by security breaches , but because there is no standard model for estimating the cost of an incident, the only data available is that which is made public by the organizations involved.

The reliability of these estimates is often challenged; the underlying methodology is basically anecdotal. However, reasonable estimates of the financial cost of security breaches can actually help organizations make rational investment decisions. According to the classic Gordon-Loeb Model analyzing the optimal investment level in information security, one can conclude that the amount a firm spends to protect information should generally be only a small fraction of the expected loss i.

As with physical security , the motivations for breaches of computer security vary between attackers. Some are thrill-seekers or vandals , some are activists, others are criminals looking for financial gain.

Additionally, recent attacker motivations can be traced back to extremist organizations seeking to gain political advantage or disrupt social agendas. All critical targeted environments are susceptible to compromise and this has led to a series of proactive studies on how to migrate the risk by taking into consideration motivations by these types of actors.

Several stark differences exist between the hacker motivation and that of nation state actors seeking to attack based on an ideological preference. A standard part of threat modeling for any particular system is to identify what might motivate an attack on that system, and who might be motivated to breach it.

The level and detail of precautions will vary depending on the system to be secured. A home personal computer , bank , and classified military network face very different threats, even when the underlying technologies in use are similar.

In computer security, a countermeasure is an action, device, procedure or technique that reduces a threat, a vulnerability, or an attack by eliminating or preventing it, by minimizing the harm it can cause, or by discovering and reporting it so that corrective action can be taken.

Security by design, or alternately secure by design, means that the software has been designed from the ground up to be secure. In this case, security is considered as a main feature. The Open Security Architecture organization defines IT security architecture as «the design artifacts that describe how the security controls security countermeasures are positioned, and how they relate to the overall information technology architecture.

These controls serve the purpose to maintain the system’s quality attributes: confidentiality, integrity, availability, accountability and assurance services «. Techopedia defines security architecture as «a unified security design that addresses the necessities and potential risks involved in a certain scenario or environment. It also specifies when and where to apply security controls.

The design process is generally reproducible. Practicing security architecture provides the right foundation to systematically address business, IT and security concerns in an organization. A state of computer «security» is the conceptual ideal, attained by the use of the three processes: threat prevention, detection, and response.

These processes are based on various policies and system components, which include the following:. Today, computer security consists mainly of «preventive» measures, like firewalls or an exit procedure. A firewall can be defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or a network and another network, such as the Internet , and can be implemented as software running on the machine, hooking into the network stack or, in the case of most UNIX -based operating systems such as Linux , built into the operating system kernel to provide real-time filtering and blocking.

Another implementation is a so-called «physical firewall», which consists of a separate machine filtering network traffic. Firewalls are common amongst machines that are permanently connected to the Internet. Some organizations are turning to big data platforms, such as Apache Hadoop , to extend data accessibility and machine learning to detect advanced persistent threats. However, relatively few organizations maintain computer systems with effective detection systems, and fewer still have organized response mechanisms in place.

As a result, as Reuters points out: «Companies for the first time report they are losing more through electronic theft of data than physical stealing of assets». Yet it is basic evidence gathering by using packet capture appliances that puts criminals behind bars. In order to ensure adequate security, the confidentiality, integrity and availability of a network, better known as the CIA triad, must be protected and is considered the foundation to information security.

The amount of security afforded to an asset can only be determined when its value is known. Vulnerability management is the cycle of identifying, remediating or mitigating vulnerabilities , [] especially in software and firmware. Vulnerability management is integral to computer security and network security. Vulnerabilities can be discovered with a vulnerability scanner , which analyzes a computer system in search of known vulnerabilities, [] such as open ports , insecure software configuration, and susceptibility to malware.

In order for these tools to be effective, they must be kept up to date with every new update the vendor release. Typically, these updates will scan for the new vulnerabilities that were introduced recently. Beyond vulnerability scanning, many organizations contract outside security auditors to run regular penetration tests against their systems to identify vulnerabilities. In some sectors, this is a contractual requirement.

While formal verification of the correctness of computer systems is possible, [] [] it is not yet common. Two factor authentication is a method for mitigating unauthorized access to a system or sensitive information. It requires «something you know»; a password or PIN, and «something you have»; a card, dongle, cellphone, or another piece of hardware.

This increases security as an unauthorized person needs both of these to gain access. Social engineering and direct computer access physical attacks can only be prevented by non-computer means, which can be difficult to enforce, relative to the sensitivity of the information. Training is often involved to help mitigate this risk, but even in highly disciplined environments e.

Inoculation, derived from inoculation theory , seeks to prevent social engineering and other fraudulent tricks or traps by instilling a resistance to persuasion attempts through exposure to similar or related attempts. While hardware may be a source of insecurity, such as with microchip vulnerabilities maliciously introduced during the manufacturing process, [] [] hardware-based or assisted computer security also offers an alternative to software-only computer security.

Using devices and methods such as dongles , trusted platform modules , intrusion-aware cases, drive locks, disabling USB ports, and mobile-enabled access may be considered more secure due to the physical access or sophisticated backdoor access required in order to be compromised.

Each of these is covered in more detail below. One use of the term «computer security» refers to technology that is used to implement secure operating systems. Many common operating systems meet the EAL4 standard of being «Methodically Designed, Tested and Reviewed», but the formal verification required for the highest levels means that they are uncommon. In software engineering, secure coding aims to guard against the accidental introduction of security vulnerabilities.

It is also possible to create software designed from the ground up to be secure. Such systems are secure by design. Beyond this, formal verification aims to prove the correctness of the algorithms underlying a system; [] important for cryptographic protocols for example.

Within computer systems, two of the main security models capable of enforcing privilege separation are access control lists ACLs and role-based access control RBAC. An access-control list ACL , with respect to a computer file system, is a list of permissions associated with an object. An ACL specifies which users or system processes are granted access to objects, as well as what operations are allowed on given objects. Role-based access control is an approach to restricting system access to authorized users, [] [] [] used by the majority of enterprises with more than employees, [] and can implement mandatory access control MAC or discretionary access control DAC.

A further approach, capability-based security has been mostly restricted to research operating systems. Capabilities can, however, also be implemented at the language level, leading to a style of programming that is essentially a refinement of standard object-oriented design.

An open-source project in the area is the E language. This is a gift to attackers who have obtained access to a machine by some means. The risk may be mitigated by the use of two-factor authentication. As the human component of cyber risk is particularly relevant in determining the global cyber risk [] an organization is facing, security awareness training, at all levels, not only provides formal compliance with regulatory and industry mandates but is considered essential [] in reducing cyber risk and protecting individuals and companies from the great majority of cyber threats.

The focus on the end-user represents a profound cultural change for many security practitioners, who have traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively from a technical perspective, and moves along the lines suggested by major security centers [] to develop a culture of cyber awareness within the organization, recognizing that a security-aware user provides an important line of defense against cyber attacks. Related to end-user training, digital hygiene or cyber hygiene is a fundamental principle relating to information security and, as the analogy with personal hygiene shows, is the equivalent of establishing simple routine measures to minimize the risks from cyber threats.

The assumption is that good cyber hygiene practices can give networked users another layer of protection, reducing the risk that one vulnerable node will be used to either mount attacks or compromise another node or network, especially from common cyberattacks. As opposed to a purely technology-based defense against threats, cyber hygiene mostly regards routine measures that are technically simple to implement and mostly dependent on discipline [] or education.

As such, these measures can be performed by laypeople, not just security experts. Cyber hygiene relates to personal hygiene as computer viruses relate to biological viruses or pathogens. However, while the term computer virus was coined almost simultaneously with the creation of the first working computer viruses, [] the term cyber hygiene is a much later invention, perhaps as late as [] by Internet pioneer Vint Cerf.

Responding to attempted security breaches is often very difficult for a variety of reasons, including:.

Where an attack succeeds and a breach occurs, many jurisdictions now have in place mandatory security breach notification laws. Incident response is an organized approach to addressing and managing the aftermath of a computer security incident or compromise with the goal of preventing a breach or thwarting a cyberattack.

An incident that is not identified and managed at the time of intrusion typically escalates to a more damaging event such as a data breach or system failure. The intended outcome of a computer security incident response plan is to contain the incident, limit damage and assist recovery to business as usual. Responding to compromises quickly can mitigate exploited vulnerabilities, restore services and processes and minimize losses.

Typical incident response plans contain a set of written instructions that outline the organization’s response to a cyberattack. Without a documented plan in place, an organization may not successfully detect an intrusion or compromise and stakeholders may not understand their roles, processes and procedures during an escalation, slowing the organization’s response and resolution. In , 60, computers were connected to the Internet, and most were mainframes, minicomputers and professional workstations.

On 2 November , many started to slow down, because they were running a malicious code that demanded processor time and that spread itself to other computers — the first internet » computer worm «. In , over a hundred intrusions were made by unidentified crackers into the Rome Laboratory , the US Air Force’s main command and research facility. Using trojan horses , hackers were able to obtain unrestricted access to Rome’s networking systems and remove traces of their activities.

The intruders were able to obtain classified files, such as air tasking order systems data and furthermore able to penetrate connected networks of National Aeronautics and Space Administration ‘s Goddard Space Flight Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, some Defense contractors, and other private sector organizations, by posing as a trusted Rome center user. In early , American apparel and home goods company TJX announced that it was the victim of an unauthorized computer systems intrusion [] and that the hackers had accessed a system that stored data on credit card , debit card , check , and merchandise return transactions.

A Ukrainian hacker known as Rescator broke into Target Corporation computers in , stealing roughly 40 million credit cards, [] and then Home Depot computers in , stealing between 53 and 56 million credit card numbers. The size of the thefts has resulted in major attention from state and Federal United States authorities and the investigation is ongoing. In April , the Office of Personnel Management discovered it had been hacked more than a year earlier in a data breach, resulting in the theft of approximately The group claimed that they had taken not only company data but user data as well.

Click here to know how to put your classifieds as VIP. Sea on foot. Terrace with Kitchenette microwave, toaster, kettle ,minibar,t.

Can accommodate four peoples 2 double beds. Situated in full town center close to restaurants, Each piece is handmade and unique, and cannot be exactly replicated.

Slight variation may occur compared to the pictures. Follow me finding. Any ideas will be welcome. What type of motor are you using in this cart? And with all the weight in the back are there any weight issues? You can modify by widening by a few inches at the seat and lengthening by 6 inches.

I was wondering if you could make a go kart out of wood. I would love if you made a video about it. But I was wondering if the frame can withstand a kx 2 stroke motorcycle engine.

Frame is pretty solid, but you will be doing burnouts with just one wheel drive. Those engines are made for race karts, so a racing clutch is probably your best bet bully, or cheetah are good ones. Hi, great website and great info. I built one other Kart that Northern Tool sold plans for 18 years ago. On the Deluxe model, do you have roll bar plans? Deluxe model can have roll bars on it; however, I did not make plans for the roll bar. Look up manco dingo, and then copy the roll bar style.

All customer provided photos are kind of scattered throughout my social media. Facebook has a few of them up there, as well as the deluxe axle plan webpage.

A customer build the deluxe version and made a video of it so I posted it there. So I was wondering if your could let me know what CAD software you use. Have you ever thought of adding a forum section to this site? Also a place to share our builds and pictures of it to show how we are doing. It could also serve as a place to help with potential repairs and or just specific help to an exact question? I realize you are great at answering our questions and explaining things, I just thought some added resource to that would be cool.

Would it be acceptable to use 16 gauge instead of 11 gauge? What about 14 gauge? At any rate, you can use anything circular as long as it fits in the hole for the lower bracket welded to front axle and upper bracket welded to steering hoop. Yeah, I thought about that. However, with one time access to a waterjet I was able to cut all of the brackets using that. So the bracket is already cut to just over 0.

I could open up the hole and use different spacers. Probably my best option as I do have. That also changes the steering wheel mount right? I assume the 2. Am I supposed to buy the engine add on to the kit? It is easiest to get the add on with the kit. What is the best method to make the Predator engine quiet? Wow, some of the comments on here are ignorant. Thanks, Jeff, I have seen people weld an automobile or even ATV muffler on, and that would be great.

How do you receive the drawings, do they come in the mail, or do they download? What do you need all the billing info for? They come as two separate pdf downloads that you receive in your email as a link that only you can use. Download them and save them to your computer or device and you have got them forever.

Save up more money and get the kit, or try and source your own parts in the UK. Yes you can pay with a credit card. The billing information is required for all online credit card purchases, make sure the billing address you submit matches the card. The plans are in electronic PDF form, once the purchase is made an e-mail is sent that allows you to download and save these prints to your computer, tablet, phone or any other device that can read PDF format and has accesss to the internet.

You are also given exclusive rights to a private section of the website that provides a lot more help in terms of this fabrication. My friends and I are trying this build but want to make some adjustments, for example modifying the seat for one person but adding the passenger to another seat attached to the back.

Would I need a stronger engine, and add weight to the fronet of the kart? You would need to look into making a full size buggy if you are planning on putting a passenger behind the driver. The price is in the link to the deluxe kit. Thanks for sharing your plans! From South Africa and what cant be bought over counter can be fabricated thanks to your easy build! Frank, please save the plans to your computer. I resent the purchase receipt, which refreshes your download so you should be fine.

Please let me know if you run into this problem again. I was wondering if it would be possible for you to upload the original CAD document so that I could take a look at the design properly and adjust any dimensions to the metric scale?

If you want a quality welder, you can get a miller or lincoln or hobart. Your Karts are sick by the way. I really want to build your live axle deluxe go kart, but I saw in your video that you need to hold onto the frame when turning. How should I prevent this, a seat belt, or a divider? And could I make it out of aluminium to make the cart lighter and faster?

If you plan on driving with a passenger like a crazy person , the passenger would need to hold on for dear life, and that is why the side guards are there. This is a go kart, not a car, or a mini buggy. You could change up the way you attach the seat and install a fiberglass racing go kart seat to avoid sliding off if you plan to drive like you stole it, but its kind of overkill. Aluminum is lighter, but it wont make it faster.

I had I on a bigger cart and it went around 60mph… just wantin to know if this frame and design will hold the power…. No, the free plans will not accommodate anything above 6. You will likely need to lengthen the frame by a few inches though to accommodate the bigger engine so you dont have to slide the seat so far forward to avoid having the engine hit the seat. The place that sells the kits sells a bolt on 40 series torque converter too if you dont already have one.

You might need to call them and place your order over the phone so they will not give you the 30 series torque converter, instead the 40 series with back plate. The existing motor mount on the deluxe kit will also fit the v-twins with no modifications.

How much weight will this kart support? I want to build one for my brother and myself, but we are quite large and I am not sure if we would both be able to use it at once. Call go power sports and ask for their larger bench seat.

Get the live axle go kart kit. I have all the parts jst what about the go cart kit. Like what should I use as a substitute. Good luck! Its all within the website on the link. I am having trouble understanding what you are saying. Your on your own for specifics, but if you are good at fabrication, you will be able to roll with this.

Can an 6 foot adult ride comfortable in the go kart? If not, how much longer should the go kart be? Thanks for your time. Most people ride with bent knees and whatnot. Even the way that the seat is set up is drastically different than the way a car is set up.

You may be able to get away with moving the dead axle rearward by a few inches, and moving the seat slider bracket back a few inches. You will also have a gap in the floor pan then, so it might be best to lengthen the floor pan as well. I dont think you will need to stretch the frame, just move the axle, seat slider brackets, engine mount, and side rails back all the same amount.

There is extra room on the back of the frame so overall length will not need to be changed. Hope that helps! I have one quick question… how much do all the parts cost, like what would be the total cost to construct one of these really cool go- karts? Hey guys your cart rocks …. All you really need to do is take the measurements from the left side and use them on the right side. Also, exact same tie rods are used, but just on opposite ends. So my 16 yr old son comes to me and says…Mom I wanna build my own Go Kart.

Thats all I want for Christmas this year is money to buy the parts. Well I hate Christmas with no presents to open. So I decided to do some research and found you. And lucky for me I see my son has posted asking total cost so I think I chose the right site. Home Sectors Cosmetics Cosmetics.

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It will be up to you to figure it out. Hi kartfab. I have one question can we use other engine like cd70cc engine or suzuki engine.

Yes you can. You can use any engine as long as you are able to fabricate parts. One difficulty of using a motorcycle engine is that you have to shift the transmission, and work a clutch. You can also use outboard boat motor shifter cables used ones can be found cheap off junk boats. To operate the clutch it is best to install a regular foot pedal, but in a pinch I have use a motorcycle hand clutch lever connected to the shifter handle which is usually made from an old piece of handlebar.

The easiest way to do this is to get one from a quad or 3wheeler. Then it will already have bearings and a sprocket carrier. We finished the live-axle go-kart after six weeks of work. But your plans explained everything clearly, and the videos were very helpful. We ended up clear-coating the kart with glossy paint. It looks really good.

It handles really well and all our neighbors admire it. We want to thank you for the great plans and for creating this website. Wow this is amazing my name is Tinashe I am from Zimbabwe I really need to make one but the costs here are high if i purchase things on the internet it takes 4 to 5 months to reach my destination.

My question is if i were to make a standard live axel kart does the level of rear wheels be higher than front wheels. Just make the rider level and the frame level and adjust where the axle sits on the front and back to make the frame level.

Hi Kartfab! I have a question about my built of an go kart. Im gonna have a 6,5 HP engine in the front, and IM thinking about having a centrifugal clutch. Is it a god Idea to use it. And my next question is If i can have a chain all the way from the engine to the rear axle.

About 75cm-1m And If where can i find one of those or do i Need to customize one. It is probably a bad idea for a number of reasons. That wont stop you from trying it out. Who knows what you can accomplish with a little bit of trial and error.

You can get parts in the links to the go kart kits, you can select just axle, or just clutch, or choose a different length of chain by looking in the parts list towards the bottom of the go kart kit landing page.

Look up radio flyer wagon go cart on you tube. It is built with engine in front and rear wheel drive. I have a question about the rear standard live axle assembly.

But we only received four locking collars. Can you clarify? Andrew, the go kart parts that came with the kit actually have locking set screws on them, so you really dont need the locking collars except for the wheels. The image is just an example, it doesnt matter where you put the drum as long as you can get a stud welded to the frame somewhere as the pivot point for the brake rod.

IIRC it doesnt matter which side. Hey kartfab I have a question for you. I completed the dead axle kit a few months ago and I really enjoyed building it and having fun with it however it seemed a little small for me so I wanted to create my own kart would you need a torque converter to make it two wheel drive or could you attach a sprocket to a live axel and attach a chain that way to make it two wheel drive.

These plans look great, and my sons and I are really looking forward to building the Live Axle kart, which we just purchased plans for. I have two questions: first, is the 11 gauge tubing essential or can you work with something less, like 13 gauge?

I guess I wonder about the overall weight—11 gauge seems heavy, though I admit I know very little about any of this—and how fast the kart will go. Also, can you add upgrades like disc breaks and a torque converter later? Are these difficult changes to make in six months or a year or whatever?

That should be 11 ga. It will not affect speed. Only minor modifications needed like chain length for torque converter and welding on the mount for disc vs brake band.

Have fun! But is there any real downside to going with a slightly thinner tube? I mean, I assume you chose 11 gauge for a reason. Hi, from the pictures and videos it looks like the track is wider in the front than the rear. Tires look closer together in the rear. Is there a purpose for the narrower track in the rear? You are correct. You can make the track wider in the rear but you would need to build an additional support on the frame.

If you widen it too much without widening the frame, you get some flexing and will bend something. The live axle plans have wide tires and are about the same in the front as they are in the back. Hey this is Ethan I have just completed the dead axle kit and I was wondering would you have to completely restart your kart to make it a live axle. And would you use the same predator cc engine to go 35mph. I purchased your deluxe plan kit with the two live axle plans.

Is the only reason for the deluxe upgrade plan having a 2 tier chassis with the rear area being higher than the mid in order to accommodate larger rear tires without having a lot of forward rake? If I did the standard build chassis with disc brake upgrade, would there be any clearance issue? The two tier design will prevent excessive rake. Should be just fine unless you are going over some really big rocks. No idea, but if you know math and you have eyeballs, you could look at the plans themselves.

It at least has the bare frame dimensions. Hey cartfab I have a question for you. So would I fit ok in this kart. Also, you may need to make it a few inches wider.

Just depends on what you want to do. Thanks, Kartfab! My Dad and I completed the go kart a few months ago. We used your free plans and were planning on using the centrifugal clutch one wheel drive setup but decided to put a torque converter and a live axle on the original frame.

We did not originally buy the go kart parts kit; we just bought the parts separately and found a few from some friends. Glad it worked out for you all. Welding angle iron to make square tube must have given you a lot of welding experience! Please help!! Hi, I was wondering if you could provide the program which you used to 3d render the kart, and the link to the rendering itself. CAD, and i dont give access to renderings as people like to copy them and sell instead of give out.

How long does the free shipping take to get to Portland Oregon? Want to place order in time for Christmas. Hi good day I am from Colombia I would like to know if you sell, make requests for those who are interested in buying a go cart, I want to buy one and if that is how it is, how much it is worth stay tuned thanks.

Hi I am a freshman and would like to build this kart over the winter. Since I am younger my money is a little tight. About what was the over all cost with everything. I would love to build just need a starting point. Anyway to get the frame assembly complete? Just wondering. Can you tell me the weight of the kart once the 6. Also, know of any good places to go to do the math on something like this? Please see a manco dingo roll cage for ideas.

Weight is unknown. The frame if made of 11 ga steel is very heavy, and you can actually get away with 14 ga steel and 11 ga steel front axle to lighten it up a bit. Completely love this answer. I am very impressed with the design. I am using sketch up to draw prints of my own. I want to say thank you for spreading the enjoyment of karting to all who seek it. Not to often someone gives without expecting. Way to go man!! Hi KartFab for the drum brake I saw that you used a rod to hook it up to the pedal.

I was wondering if I can just use a throttle cable to hook it up. Hi KartFab what would you recommend for driving on the road no off roading would you suggest a live axle or fixed axle?

Dear KartFab sorry about asking so many questions but I have another one. For the live axle instead of using hangers would pillow block bearings work too? Dear KartFab I was planning on building a go kart from scratch because at GoPowerSports at there website they give different chain lengths. Also how long would you recommend the chain length to be? Thanks for plans. Is there any way we can get the actual CAD file of the live axle version. I have purchased your plans and hope to be able to add a roll bar.

If you want to do a roll cage, great! But sorry I cannot and will not release any digital version other than the PDF. Thanks in advance. That will not work unless you make the kart wider just in the middle which will cause a safety hazard as you shift the center of gravity dramatically , or if you use a longer axle. Hello i am french, i am really interested in the concept.

The big problem is that I do not understand the rating plans. Would it be possible to have it even plan metric quotation in mini meter thanks in advance.

Want to build a kids cage kart to try to get my children into racing by age 7 or 8. Or will a larger restrictor plate be easier? Yeah, the motor mount is more of a universal one so you can slap a small engine on it. You may wish to get a different size one, or one with split sprockets on it more towards racing. Been eyeing your plans for quite a while 6 months. I want to make a longer frame with the engine in the front of the kart having an exhaust and drive chain line lead to the back because I want to turn the back into storage little carry-ons, backpacks.

I noticed you are using a CAD Program. What program are you using? Do you have a 3D Model download for the free plans? I can then modify it to how I want to build it.

Thank you for telling me.

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Computer security , cybersecurity cyber security , or information technology security IT security is the protection of computer systems and networks from information disclosure, theft of, or damage to their hardware , software , or electronic data , as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the services they provide.

The field has become of significance due to the expanded reliance on computer systems , the Internet , [3] and wireless network standards such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi , and due to the growth of «smart» devices , including smartphones , televisions , and the various devices that constitute the Internet of things IoT. Cybersecurity is also one of the significant challenges in the contemporary world , due to the complexity of information systems , both in terms of political usage and technology.

Its primary goal is to ensure the system’s dependability, integrity, and data privacy. Since the Internet ‘s arrival and with the digital transformation initiated in recent years, the notion of cybersecurity has become a familiar subject in both our professional and personal lives.

Cybersecurity and cyber threats have been consistently present for the last 50 years of technological change. In the s and s, computer security was mainly limited to academia until the conception of the Internet, where, with increased connectivity, computer viruses and network intrusions began to take off.

After the spread of viruses in the s, the s marked the institutionalization [ clarification needed ] of cyber threats and cybersecurity. The April session organized by Willis Ware at the Spring Joint Computer Conference , and the later publication of the Ware Report , were foundational moments in the history of the field of computer security. However, in the s and s there were no grave computer threats because computers and the internet were still developing, and security threats were easily identifiable.

Most often, threats came from malicious insiders who gained unauthorized access to sensitive documents and files. Although malware and network breaches existed during the early years, they did not use them for financial gain. By the second half of the s, established computer firms like IBM started offering commercial access control systems and computer security software products.

It started with Creeper in It is considered the first computer worm. In , the first anti-virus software was created, called Reaper. Between September and June , a group of German hackers performed the first documented case of cyber espionage. The group hacked into American defense contractors, universities, and military bases’ networks and sold gathered information to the Soviet KGB.

The group was led by Markus Hess , who was arrested on 29 June He was convicted of espionage along with two co-conspirators on 15 Feb In , one of the first computer worms, called the Morris worm , was distributed via the Internet.

It gained significant mainstream media attention. Netscape had SSL version 1. These weaknesses included replay attacks and a vulnerability that allowed hackers to alter unencrypted communications sent by users. However, in February , Netscape launched the Version 2. Protecting information systems includes evaluating software, identifying security flaws, and taking steps to correct the flaws, which is a defensive action.

Collecting intelligence includes exploiting security flaws to extract information, which is an offensive action. Correcting security flaws makes the flaws unavailable for NSA exploitation. The agency analyzes commonly used software in order to find security flaws, which it reserves for offensive purposes against competitors of the United States.

The agency seldom takes defensive action by reporting the flaws to software producers so that they can eliminate them. The offensive strategy worked for a while, but eventually other nations, including Russia , Iran , North Korea , and China , acquired their own offensive capability and have tended to use it against the United States. NSA contractors created and sold «click-and-shoot» attack tools to U.

NSA’s employees and contractors have been recruited at high salaries by adversaries, anxious to compete in cyberwarfare. For example, in , the United States and Israel began exploiting security flaws in the Microsoft Windows operating system to attack and damage equipment used in Iran to refine nuclear materials. Iran responded by heavily investing in their own cyberwarfare capability, which they began using against the United States.

A vulnerability is a weakness in design, implementation, operation, or internal control. Most of the vulnerabilities that have been discovered are documented in the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures CVE database. A backdoor in a computer system, a cryptosystem or an algorithm , is any secret method of bypassing normal authentication or security controls. They may exist for many reasons, including by original design or poor configuration.

They may have been added by an authorized party to allow some legitimate access, or by an attacker for malicious reasons; but regardless of the motives for their existence, they create a vulnerability. Backdoors can be very hard to detect, and backdoors are usually discovered by someone who has access to application source code or intimate knowledge of the operating system of the computer.

Denial of service attacks DoS are designed to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. While a network attack from a single IP address can be blocked by adding a new firewall rule, many forms of Distributed denial of service DDoS attacks are possible, where the attack comes from a large number of points — and defending is much more difficult.

Such attacks can originate from the zombie computers of a botnet or from a range of other possible techniques, including reflection and amplification attacks , where innocent systems are fooled into sending traffic to the victim. An unauthorized user gaining physical access to a computer is most likely able to directly copy data from it. They may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing software worms, keyloggers , covert listening devices or using wireless microphones.

Even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be bypassed by booting another operating system or tool from a CD-ROM or other bootable media. Disk encryption and Trusted Platform Module are designed to prevent these attacks.

Eavesdropping is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private computer «conversation» communication , typically between hosts on a network. Even machines that operate as a closed system i. Surfacing in , a new class of multi-vector, [18] polymorphic [19] cyber threats combined several types of attacks and changed form to avoid cybersecurity controls as they spread.

Phishing is the attempt of acquiring sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, and credit card details directly from users by deceiving the users. The fake website often asks for personal information, such as log-in details and passwords. This information can then be used to gain access to the individual’s real account on the real website. Preying on a victim’s trust, phishing can be classified as a form of social engineering. Attackers are using creative ways to gain access to real accounts.

A common scam is for attackers to send fake electronic invoices [21] to individuals showing that they recently purchased music, apps, or others, and instructing them to click on a link if the purchases were not authorized. Privilege escalation describes a situation where an attacker with some level of restricted access is able to, without authorization, elevate their privileges or access level. For example, a standard computer user may be able to exploit a vulnerability in the system to gain access to restricted data; or even become » root » and have full unrestricted access to a system.

Reverse engineering is the process by which a man-made object is deconstructed to reveal its designs, code, architecture, or to extract knowledge from the object; similar to scientific research, the only difference being that scientific research is about a natural phenomenon. Any computational system affects its environment in some form.

This effect it has on its environment, includes a wide range of criteria, which can range from electromagnetic radiation, to residual effect on RAM cells which as a consequent make a Cold boot attack possible, to hardware implementation faults which allow for access and or guessing of other values that normally should be inaccessible. In Side-channel attack scenarios the attacker would gather such information about a system or network to guess its internal state, and as a result access the information which is assumed by the victim to be secure.

Social engineering , in the context of computer security, aims to convince a user to disclose secrets such as passwords, card numbers, etc. A common scam involves emails sent to accounting and finance department personnel, impersonating their CEO and urgently requesting some action. In May , the Milwaukee Bucks NBA team was the victim of this type of cyber scam with a perpetrator impersonating the team’s president Peter Feigin , resulting in the handover of all the team’s employees’ W-2 tax forms.

Spoofing is an act of masquerading as a valid entity through falsification of data such as an IP address or username , in order to gain access to information or resources that one is otherwise unauthorized to obtain.

Tampering describes a malicious modification or alteration of data. So-called Evil Maid attacks and security services planting of surveillance capability into routers are examples.

Malicious software malware installed on a computer can leak any information, such as personal information, business information and passwords, can give control of the system to the attacker, and can corrupt or delete data permanently.

Employee behavior can have a big impact on information security in organizations. Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness towards information security within an organization.

Information security culture is the » Andersson and Reimers found that employees often do not see themselves as part of their organization’s information security effort and often take actions that impede organizational changes. The growth in the number of computer systems and the increasing reliance upon them by individuals, businesses, industries, and governments means that there are an increasing number of systems at risk.

The computer systems of financial regulators and financial institutions like the U. Securities and Exchange Commission , SWIFT, investment banks, and commercial banks are prominent hacking targets for cybercriminals interested in manipulating markets and making illicit gains.

Computers control functions at many utilities, including coordination of telecommunications , the power grid , nuclear power plants , and valve opening and closing in water and gas networks. The Internet is a potential attack vector for such machines if connected, but the Stuxnet worm demonstrated that even equipment controlled by computers not connected to the Internet can be vulnerable.

In , the Computer Emergency Readiness Team , a division of the Department of Homeland Security , investigated 79 hacking incidents at energy companies. The aviation industry is very reliant on a series of complex systems which could be attacked.

The consequences of a successful attack range from loss of confidentiality to loss of system integrity, air traffic control outages, loss of aircraft, and even loss of life. Desktop computers and laptops are commonly targeted to gather passwords or financial account information, or to construct a botnet to attack another target.

Smartphones , tablet computers , smart watches , and other mobile devices such as quantified self devices like activity trackers have sensors such as cameras, microphones, GPS receivers, compasses, and accelerometers which could be exploited, and may collect personal information, including sensitive health information. WiFi, Bluetooth, and cell phone networks on any of these devices could be used as attack vectors, and sensors might be remotely activated after a successful breach. The increasing number of home automation devices such as the Nest thermostat are also potential targets.

Large corporations are common targets. In many cases attacks are aimed at financial gain through identity theft and involve data breaches. Examples include the loss of millions of clients’ credit card details by Home Depot , [47] Staples , [48] Target Corporation , [49] and the most recent breach of Equifax.

Medical records have been targeted in general identify theft, health insurance fraud, and impersonating patients to obtain prescription drugs for recreational purposes or resale.

Vehicles are increasingly computerized, with engine timing, cruise control , anti-lock brakes , seat belt tensioners, door locks, airbags and advanced driver-assistance systems on many models.

Additionally, connected cars may use WiFi and Bluetooth to communicate with onboard consumer devices and the cell phone network. All of these systems carry some security risk, and such issues have gained wide attention. Simple examples of risk include a malicious compact disc being used as an attack vector, [61] and the car’s onboard microphones being used for eavesdropping. However, if access is gained to a car’s internal controller area network , the danger is much greater [57] — and in a widely publicized test, hackers remotely carjacked a vehicle from 10 miles away and drove it into a ditch.

Manufacturers are reacting in numerous ways, with Tesla in pushing out some security fixes «over the air» into its cars’ computer systems. Government and military computer systems are commonly attacked by activists [67] [68] [69] and foreign powers.

The Internet of things IoT is the network of physical objects such as devices, vehicles, and buildings that are embedded with electronics , software , sensors , and network connectivity that enables them to collect and exchange data.

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